Legal Status of Foetus

By AMOS MUOKI 

In Kenya, the Constitution states clearly that life begins at conception. Article 26(2) says the life of a foetus "begins at conception." But a far more difficult question has been troubling our courts: Does that mean a foetus is a full 'person' with the same legal rights as you or me? The answer, according to both Kenyan and international rulings, is a careful 'no' – at least, not until the child is born alive.

This distinction affects everything from murder charges to compensation claims, and even disputes over frozen embryos. Let us break down what the judges have actually said.

The 'Unique Organism' – But Not a Person

The confusion often comes from an old English case, Attorney General (Reference No. 3 of 1994). In that case, the House of Lords made a famous statement: "a foetus is a unique organism." They rejected the old idea that a foetus is simply a part of the mother, like her leg. The judges explained that the mother and the foetus are two distinct organisms living symbiotically, not a single organism living with two aspects. 

However, our local courts have been careful to explain that being "unique" is not the same as being a "person." That House of Lords view, while influential, is actually less than helpful in directly answering whether a foetus is a person. Answering this question is crucial because it determines whether the foetus receives the entire spectrum of rights under the Bill of Rights, or whether those rights are withheld until birth.

What Kenyan Courts Say: You Cannot 'Murder' a Foetus

The most direct answer from Kenya comes from Nairobi HC Criminal Case No. 81 of 2004 Republic versus Dr. John Nyamu & 2 Others. In that case, the court was asked whether harming a foetus could amount to the crime of murder. The judges implicitly held that a foetus is not a person capable of being murdered. Why? Because the crime of murder, by law, requires the killing of a "human being" who has already been born. Therefore, no matter how grievous the harm done to an unborn child, the specific charge of murder cannot legally stand because the foetus lacks the legal status of a person.

The 'Born Alive' Rule

So when does a foetus become a person? According to the English case of CP (a child) versus First-tier Tribunal[2014], the answer is at the moment of birth. In that case, the Court held that a foetus is not a person, and that it is only at the point of birth that the foetus becomes a person, much as the foetus has some interests that the law recognizes. As long as the baby is still in the womb, it is not a legal person. But the moment the child is born alive, the law recognises that child as a full human being with rights. The court noted that even though a foetus has "some interests that the law recognizes" for example, in cases of abortion laws where the unborn life is protected it cannot claim the full Bill of Rights until birth.

The Frozen Embryo Dispute: No Independent Rights

This principle was tested in a fascinating dispute in the case of Evans versus Amicus Healthcare Ltd [2004]. In that case, the Court of Appeal heard a dispute over what should happen to a frozen embryo created using the gametes of a couple who were undergoing assisted reproductive treatment. The man wanted the embryo destroyed, while the woman wanted to keep the embryo. The woman claimed that the rights of the embryo should be taken into account in their dispute. The Court of Appeal rejected that argument completely. The judges held that a foetus, prior to the moment of birth, does not have independent rights enforceable as such. In other words, the embryo could not sue or claim a right to life in court. The dispute was between the man and the woman, not the embryo, and the court dismissed the woman's claim.

The Most Important Twist: You Can Still Be Charged with Manslaughter

Here is where the law gets subtle. Just because a foetus is not a "person," does that mean you can harm a pregnant woman with no extra punishment? The answer is no. The same Attorney General's Reference (No. 3 of 1994) case provides the answer. In that case, a man stabbed a pregnant woman, injuring both the woman and the foetus. The child was subsequently born, lived for a short while, and then died. The man was charged with murder. The House of Lords held that murder involved the killing of a human being, therefore the killing of a foetus was not murder. However, once the foetus was born alive, it became a person. The man had therefore, in this case, killed a person. But he was not guilty of murder for lack of the necessary intention to kill a person, though he would be guilty of manslaughter. 

According to the Court, a foetus does not, for purposes of criminal law, have any relevant type of personality, but is an organism sui generis (unique in form) lacking at this stage the entire range of characteristics both of the mother to which it is physically linked, and of the complete human being which it will later become. The Court rejected the reasoning that assumes that since in the eyes of the law the foetus does not have the attributes which make it a person, it must be an adjunct of the mother. 

Comparative jurisprudence holds that, while a foetus may not independently assert rights, once the child is born, he or she can sue for injuries suffered while he or she was a foetus. So, if a child is born alive and later dies from injuries suffered in the womb, the offender can be charged with manslaughter, not murder.

The Bottom Line

First, a foetus is 'life' under Article 26(2) of our Constitution. Second, but a foetus is not a 'person' with full constitutional rights until it is born alive. Third, you cannot be convicted of murdering a foetus because murder requires the death of a person who has been born.

Fourth, however, if a child is born alive and later dies from injuries suffered in the womb, the offender can be charged with manslaughter. Fifth, a foetus cannot independently sue or assert its own rights in court, even in disputes over frozen embryos. The law recognises the foetus as a "unique organism" deserving of protection, but it draws a firm line at birth for the purpose of fundamental rights like the right to sue, inherit, or be the victim of murder. It is a delicate balance between respecting unborn life and maintaining clear legal rules for those who are already born.

The writer is legal commentator on constitutional and human rights issues.